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The acts of harvest and consumption can themselves become central parts of identity arteria tibial posterior order lanoxin 0.25mg, and can form the basis for demonstrations of communal reciprocity and structures of sharing that contribute to blood pressure chart by time of day discount 0.25mg lanoxin otc whats prehypertension mean purchase lanoxin 0.25mg without prescription building a collective identity (Harder et al blood pressure medication irbesartan side effects discount 0.25mg lanoxin. Members of the Nez Perce Tribe in Idaho have described the connection to the land as the very essence of the culture itself, without which the culture itself would not survive (Kawamura, 2004). For the Gimi people of Papua New Guinea, simply articulating the notion of nature as separate from culture makes little sense as they view nature as a manifestation of their ancestors (Russell et al. Kazakh communities in Western Mongolia often define Kazakhness itself in terms based in the ecology of the mountains (Post, 2007). For the Inuit peoples of the Arctic, without going to the land, "Inuit would not be Inuit any more. For the Yanomami people of Amazonia the spirituality of the rainforest infuses the ethical principles that guide daily life (Kopenawa, 2013). This concept is based on ancient and traditional Andean knowledge and recognizes that individuals depend on nature (Acosta, 2008; Walsh, 2010). These examples and many others speak to an immense value placed on the natural world that truly cannot be measured in terms of economic benefit or other quantifiable aspects of quality of life. These impacts are generated both through the direct effects of natural systems on human lives as well as through the complex interactions of natural systems with anthropogenic assets, governance, institutions, and varied worldviews. As humanity moves through the 21st century on a hotter, more crowded, and less natural planet, this approach to treating nature as a commodity may not be enough to preserve the species and ecosystems that humanity has benefited from and interacted with for millennia. This provides us little guidance for what to do in those situations where some aspect of the natural world in fact provides a disservice to humans. Lastly, ecosystem service valuation implies that the value of nature declines any time a new technology is created that can replace a service provided by nature. Even if these issues can be overcome, it may never possible to overcome serious errors in valuation that an ecosystem services paradigm (Daily et al. These errors in valuation include: (i) a conflation of ethical beliefs and economic beliefs; (ii) a 405 5. There is some potential for land restoration activities to play a role in mitigating cultural loss. Research in Indonesia found that indigenous Batin Sembilan people were able to maintain their harvest of traditional forest products in a restored forest landscape at a similar level to what it was in natural forest areas (Widianingsih et al. This suggests that there is potential for restored landscapes to indeed capture some of the cultural value of the same landscapes pre-degradation. However, in some cases, there may be a particularity of place that is difficult or impossible for restoration efforts to replicate. This re-planting strategy was unacceptable to some members of the tribe who viewed this transplantation of plants of the same species from a different location as failing to replace what had previously been lost because the connection between plant and place had been broken (Winthrop, 2014). This example illustrates the particular relationship between restoration and the cultural values of ecosystems. Restoration may be effective in many contexts, but to effectively respect cultural values, any project must closely engage with local populations. Deciding what nature humanity wants requires elevating and strengthening conversations on the non-material and perhaps unquantifiable values of nature to humanity. There is a great need to strengthen, deepen and broaden research across disciplines on the cultural values of nature, how they are affected by land degradation, and to what extent they can be enriched by restoration. However, given the rate of global changes and the rapid loss of indigenous cultures, even emphasizing the non-material and cultural contributions of nature to human well-being may not be enough to preserve it for future generations of humanity. It may require moving beyond the instrumental as well as existence value of nature to humans to a conception of intrinsic value.

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Wind erosion (deflation or aeolian) occurs in areas having < 250 mm annual rainfall (Shao arrhythmia knowledge a qualitative study lanoxin 0.25mg without prescription, 2008) arrhythmia dance buy lanoxin 0.25mg lowest price. Dust emissions from wind erosion can reach high levels in the atmosphere and impact climate (Choobari et al blood pressure medication lightheadedness purchase lanoxin 0.25mg. Mass transportation by gravity is a natural process on slopes that can be initiated and exacerbated by animals and humans who break the surface vegetation blood pressure treatment guidelines order lanoxin 0.25mg without prescription, off-road vehicles and by agricultural tillage (Van Oost et al. This includes landslides which often occur on steep slopes denuded by humans, often near habitations where the results can cost large numbers of human lives (Figure 4. Extreme rain events can render areas vulnerable to floods, landslides, gully incisions and soil erosion by water, depending on geology, relative relief and climate (Figure 4. In general, land use and land cover are the major factor in soil erosion rates (Figure 4. Erosion rates have been found to increase in the order: below natural forest and shrubland < planted trees < perennial plantations < annual crops < bare soils, with over 5 mm yr-1 in extreme cases. Heavy siltation has raised river beds, increasing the risk of flooding, especially in the Yangtze river basin in China, the major river basins of humid tropics in East Asia and the Amazon Basin (Aylward, 2005; Bruijnzeel, 2004a, 2005; Yin & Li, 2001). Particularly low pH soils occur in South Eastern Asia, eastern North America, along the west coast and southcentral regions of Africa, Northern Europe, portions of Siberia and the Amazon Basin of South America. Acid sulphate soils are prevalent in coastal regions, particularly Australia (58,000 km2). Sources of acidification Soil acidification is a natural process that occurs in regions with an abundance of precipitation and leaching, leading to accelerated weathering of soil minerals, release of base cations such as calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium, which are removed from soil with drainage waters (van Breemen et al. In addition to loss of base cations, inputs of strong acids can lead to mobilization of dissolved inorganic aluminium, which is toxic to plants and aquatic biota. Soils enriched in amorphous iron or aluminium oxides from acidification readily immobilize phosphorus, affecting plant availability. Waterlogging or other mechanisms resulting in reducing conditions in soils, sediments and organic substrates can produce iron sulphide minerals, forming acid sulphate soils. If acid sulphate soils are drained, excavated or exposed to air, the iron sulphide minerals oxidize, resulting in the production of sulfuric acid and extremely acidic conditions. Acid sulphate soils are common in coastal areas, but also occur in agricultural areas with saline, sulphate-rich groundwater and in freshwater wetlands. Biotic effects Soil acidification can affect the supply and availability of inorganic nutrients (calcium, magnesium, phosphorus), affecting fertility and the nutritional needs of grazing animals. Soil acidification coupled with the leaching of strong acid anions (sulphate, nitrate, chloride) results in the mobilization of dissolved inorganic aluminium from soil (Cronan & Schofield, 1990), which is toxic to plants due to inhibition of root growth and function, and runoff with elevated aluminium concentrations, which is toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates (Driscoll et al. Human causes Human activities can exacerbate acidification that occurs with natural soil development. The common causes are: wet and dry deposition of acidic atmospheric pollutants ("acid rain") emitted from fossil fuel combustion; excessive application of ammonium-based fertilizers and intensive agricultural cropping; deforestation and tree harvesting; and exposure of drained acid sulphate soils. In forests, particularly those on base poor uplands, chronic acid deposition (Driscoll et al. For a few years after harvesting, elevated nitrate leaching can occur which itself reduces fertility and accelerates the depletion of exchangeable nutrient cations from the soil exchange complex (van Breemen et al. Cation accumulation associated with re-growing forest biomass continues soil acidification. Intensive agriculture with large application of nitrogen fertilizers can result in soil acidification through plant uptake of ammonium and/or ammonium oxidation and nitrate leaching (Guo et al. In tandem, as in forestry, the removal of crops and other biomass can exacerbate soil acidification due to the removal of nutrient cations (calcium, magnesium, potassium) (Tang & Rengel, 2003). There are three categories of salt-affected soils: saline, sodic and saline-sodic soils (Table 4. Occurrence the global areal extent of all salt-affected soils, most of which are naturally salty, is about 1 billion ha, occurring in about 100 countries (Table 4. Although salinity occurs naturally, it is often exacerbated by human activities, most commonly through irrigation at rates that are not adequate to exceed evapotranspiration, so 241 4. Types Saline soils have excessive levels of soluble salts (calcium, magnesium, sodium, chloride, sulphate) and are characterized by high specific conductance values > 4 dS m-1 (Table 4.

None of these elements blood pressure before heart attack order lanoxin 0.25mg mastercard, across and within the three criteria are sufficient individually to blood pressure chart download discount 0.25mg lanoxin with amex heart attack 70 blockage buy generic lanoxin 0.25 mg on-line establish or identify success heart attack movie review trusted 0.25mg lanoxin. A quantitative method is presented which can evaluate effectiveness of individual success stories (Table 1. These quantitative measurements can be used prior to restoration and rehabilitation actions, during implementation, at the end of implementation and can also assist project adaptation. Effective examples incorporating financial instruments Landscape partnerships, including businesses, have the potential to be effective for reducing land degradation, while benefitting and contributing to local communities, businesses, landscapes, food and nature. The Action Agenda aims to improve the quality of business engagement and scale up landscape partnerships for sustainable development including food, nature, business, local communities and landscapes (Scherr et al. A local Kenyan organization, Kijabe Environment Volunteers in the Kikuyu escarpment landscape has mobilized communities across their landscapes. These landscapes are rich in wild biodiversity, have strong cultural heritage and important areas of agricultural production. Countries experiencing salt-induced land degradation have recognised the cost-effectiveness of investing in land remediation, incorporated into a broader strategy for food security. Including remediation in national action plans can identify and remove barriers to the adoption of sustainable land management, including perverse subsidies (Qadir et al. Successful restoration also needs to be supported by a decisionmaking framework aiming for net social and economic benefits, and implemented within strong legal, governance and institutional contexts (Laestadius et al. Policies and schemes for the payment of ecosystem services, which provide incentives for investment in land improvement and reward sustainable land use, have been employed as economic instruments in some parts of the world (Nkonya et al. However, a singular focus on economic value, such as the payment of ecosystem services, provides limited opportunity to incorporate a pluralistic approach which embraces a diversity of non-monetary values, and limits opportunities for transformative integrated practices (Pascual et al. Private markets often fail to assign a price to many ecosystem services that adequately reflects their benefits to society as a whole (Kroeger & Casey, 2007). The Kisoro District in Uganda provides an example where fragmented landscapes and lack of collaboration, between upstream and downstream communities in the Chuho springs watershed, has resulted 14 1. Such legal instruments are only as good as their implementation, particularly in controlling compliance and implementing potential prosecutions. Latin American countries have developed regulatory frameworks and supportive instruments aimed at guiding restoration. However, exclusion of stakeholder groups, limited institutional and organizational capacity to operationalize large-scale restoration and particularities of the high socio-ecological heterogeneity in legal and regulatory instruments have limited their effectiveness (Meli et al. These are however only biophysical and exclude impacts on people, particularly indigenous peoples and local communities (Chaves et al. South Africa requires mining companies to rehabilitate land after open cast mining, which is costly. Estimating the farming revenue of land prior to and after open-cast mining can establish what the value of land use will be after mining, and can shift scenarios toward a winwin situation for all land users (McNeill & Quillerou, 2016). Legal policies based on environmental compensation, without restoration recovery conditions, have failed in mangrove recovery projects in Mexico (Zaldivar-Jimenez et al. To compensate for wetland losses through the implementation of the Clean Water Act in the United States, performance standards for wetland creation and restoration have been established (National Research Council 2001a, 2001b). Case studies from 10 countries (Chile, Ethiopia, Iran, Panama, Paraguay, Russia, Samoa, Solomon Islands, South Africa and Uganda) established that legislation recognizing community land, conserved areas and traditional knowledge further enhanced project success (Global Forest Coalition, 2015). Strong correlations exist between weak, poorly defined rights and insecure tenure, deforestation and landscapelevel degradation (Global Landscapes Forum, 2015b). Difficulties occur where modernization has diluted such "law", and in colonial disputed lands where differing views exist on land tenure regimes (see Case Study 8).

To improve information arteria haemorrhoidalis media discount lanoxin 0.25 mg without a prescription, knowledge and tool use throughout the policy cycle arteria faciei discount 0.25mg lanoxin amex, knowledge and information outputs (Table 8 blood pressure medication dosage too high order lanoxin 0.25mg with mastercard. This could be done by cross-disciplinary and multi-actor collaboration blood pressure by palpation buy 0.25 mg lanoxin mastercard, in order to tune research efforts and cross-sector harmonization. However, there is limited evidence on when scientific tools are used in decision-making, as many factors influence actual uptake, including, but not limited to, relevance for policy objectives, time and cost costeffectiveness, usefulness in case of missing data (Gibson et al. Decision-making is about more than having access to and using information, knowledge and tools. A range of institutional competencies are needed to support land degradation and restoration decision-making. Box 8 6 An example of governance halting malpractice and land degradation but with no immediate solutions for restoration. During this time, a special committee on senior government ecologists was established to report to central government on the ecological basis for degradation of the upland snow tussock grasslands of the South Island pastoral lands. This committee recommended that research be carried out on both the systematics and ecology of the dominant tussock species and their communities, including the roles of introduced plants and animals. Several such studies were initiated, including those leading to separation of the effects of rangeland burning from those of grazing. Spelling for one (and preferably two) seasons following a management fire has therefore been recommended and now generally adopted, at least for the first post-fire season. Maximum yields among a wide range of cover types, including bare soil, came from the tall tussock grassland: 63-80% of measured precipitation (1300-1400 mm p. Yields from all other cover types were significantly less, but those from burned and clipped tussocks increased as they recovered (Holdsworth and Mark, 1990; Mark and Dickinson, 2008). Subsequent controversy over the contribution of fog interception by the tall fine tussock foliage was largely resolved with a stable isotope study (Ingraham et al. Concerns with the degraded state of the South Island rangelands continued and resulted in the establishment of a Ministerial appointed High Country Review Committee in 1994, to which the New Zealand Ecological Society and New Zealand Society of Soil Science made a comprehensive joint submission (Allen et al. The Committee concluded (Party, 1994) that "a decline in soil condition is very likely on the unimproved lands. These lands comprise approximately 80% of the land area of the pastoral high country and receive no inputs. In the long term, the pastoral use of extensive areas of the South Island high country is unlikely to be sustainable. This provided for lessees to negotiate freehold title for the more productive, generally lower 610 8. Their main influence was through fire, which increased dramatically from the rare natural fires, and was a major factor in increasing the extent of grassland. By the time Europeans settled in the 1840s, forest cover had decreased from ~75% to ~50%, largely at the expense of tussock (bunch) grassland cover that increased to ~31% (82,436 km2; Mark and McLennan 2005). All of the remaining indigenous grasslands have been modified to varying extents through the effects of pastoral farming (burning and domestic grazing) on the more accessible rangelands and feral herbivores on the remainder, mainly deer introduced for hunting. Erosion was probably a feature of upland landscapes ahead of pastoral farming (Whitehouse, 1984), but degradation increased as a result and ranged from a drastic reduction in above-ground biomass through replacement of the tall tussock cover by a mixed short turf or herb field of grazing-tolerant grasses and forbs, and greatly increased bare soil and consequent erosion. In the more remote, non-rangeland regions, displacement of tussock cover was less serious. The extent of degradation was also related to the basement rock, as well as to variation in the topographic factors of elevation, aspect and slope. The government took legislative action to address the situation in 1948 with an amendment to much earlier legislation, to provide much greater security for the pastoral use of the governmentleasehold high-country tussock lands. Previously, the leases were reviewed at 11-year intervals with no right of renewal; such insecurity clearly encouraged unrestrained resource exploitation. Despite the amendment, with continued deterioration in the rangelands condition and carrying capacity, the government established regional catchment authorities in the early 1950s.

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